• Somerville, R. S. & Davé, R. Physical models of galaxy formation in a cosmological framework. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 53, 51–113 (2015).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kormendy, J., Fisher, D. B., Cornell, M. E. & Bender, R. Structure and formation of elliptical and spheroidal galaxies. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 182, 216–309 (2009).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Patton, D. R., Ellison, S. L., Simard, L., McConnachie, A. W. & Mendel, J. T. Galaxy pairs in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. III. Evidence of induced star formation from optical colours. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 412, 591–606 (2011).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ellison, S. L., Patton, D. R., Simard, L. & McConnachie, A. W. Galaxy pairs in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. I. Star formation, active galactic nucleus fraction, and the mass–metallicity relation. Astron. J. 135, 1877–1899 (2008).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Bell, E. F. et al. Dry mergers in GEMS: the dynamical evolution of massive early-type galaxies. Astrophys. J. 640, 241–251 (2006).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Madau, P. & Dickinson, M. Cosmic star-formation history. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 52, 415–486 (2014).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Barton, E. J., Geller, M. J. & Kenyon, S. J. Tidally triggered star formation in close pairs of galaxies. Astrophys. J. 530, 660–679 (2000).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lin, L. et al. The DEEP2 galaxy redshift survey: evolution of close galaxy pairs and major-merger rates up to z ~ 1.2. Astrophys. J. Lett. 617, L9–L12 (2004).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Conselice, C. J., Bershady, M. A., Dickinson, M. & Papovich, C. A direct measurement of major galaxy mergers at z  3. Astron. J. 126, 1183–1207 (2003).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lotz, J. M., Primack, J. & Madau, P. A new nonparametric approach to galaxy morphological classification. Astron. J. 128, 163–182 (2004).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Harmsen, B. et al. Diverse stellar haloes in nearby Milky Way mass disc galaxies. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 466, 1491–1512 (2017).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Smercina, A., Bell, E. F., Samuel, J. & D’Souza, R. Relating the diverse merger histories and satellite populations of nearby galaxies. Astrophys. J. 930, 69 (2022).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Boecker, A. et al. A galaxy’s accretion history unveiled from its integrated spectrum. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 491, 823–837 (2020).

    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • van Dokkum, P. G. et al. The growth of massive galaxies since z = 2. Astrophys. J. 709, 1018–1041 (2010).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Oyarzún, G. A. et al. Signatures of stellar accretion in MaNGA early-type galaxies. Astrophys. J. 880, 111 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Davison, T. A. et al. Mapping accreted stars in early-type galaxies across the mass–size plane. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 507, 3089–3112 (2021).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Cannarozzo, C. et al. The contribution of in situ and ex situ star formation in early-type galaxies: MaNGA versus IllustrisTNG. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 520, 5651–5670 (2023).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Huang, S., Ho, L. C., Peng, C. Y., Li, Z.-Y. & Barth, A. J. Fossil evidence for the two-phase formation of elliptical galaxies. Astrophys. J. Lett. 768, L28 (2013).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Huang, S., Ho, L. C., Peng, C. Y., Li, Z.-Y. & Barth, A. J. The Carnegie–Irvine galaxy survey. III. The three-component structure of nearby elliptical galaxies. Astrophys. J. 766, 47 (2013).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Huang, S. et al. Individual stellar haloes of massive galaxies measured to 100 kpc at 0.3 < z < 0.5 using Hyper Suprime-Cam. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 475, 3348–3368 (2018).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Walmsley, M., Ferguson, A. M. N., Mann, R. G. & Lintott, C. J. Identification of low surface brightness tidal features in galaxies using convolutional neural networks. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 483, 2968–2982 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Bickley, R. W. et al. Convolutional neural network identification of galaxy post-mergers in UNIONS using IllustrisTNG. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 504, 372–392 (2021).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ćiprijanović, A., Snyder, G. F., Nord, B. & Peek, J. E. G. DeepMerge: classifying high-redshift merging galaxies with deep neural networks. Astron. Comput. 32, 100390 (2020).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Eisert, L. et al. ERGO-ML: comparing IllustrisTNG and HSC galaxy images via contrastive learning. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 528, 7411–7439 (2024).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Angeloudi, E. et al. ERGO-ML: towards a robust machine learning model for inferring the fraction of accreted stars in galaxies from integral-field spectroscopic maps. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 523, 5408–5429 (2023).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Bundy, K. et al. Overview of the SDSS-IV MaNGA survey: mapping nearby galaxies at Apache Point Observatory. Astrophys. J. 798, 7 (2015).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sarmiento, R. et al. MaNGIA: 10,000 mock galaxies for stellar population analysis. Astron. Astrophys. 673, A23 (2023).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Oser, L., Ostriker, J. P., Naab, T., Johansson, P. H. & Burkert, A. The two phases of galaxy formation. Astrophys. J. 725, 2312–2323 (2010).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Cappellari, M. Structure and kinematics of early-type galaxies from integral field spectroscopy. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 54, 597–665 (2016).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Greene, J. E. et al. The MASSIVE survey. II. Stellar population trends out to large radius in massive early-type galaxies. Astrophys. J. 807, 11 (2015).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Oyarzún, G. A. et al. SDSS-IV MaNGA: how the stellar populations of passive central galaxies depend on stellar and halo mass. Astrophys. J. 933, 88 (2022).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Scholz-Díaz, L., Martín-Navarro, I., Falcón-Barroso, J., Lyubenova, M. & van de Ven, G. Baryonic properties of nearby galaxies across the stellar-to-total dynamical mass relation. Nat. Astron. 8, 648–656 (2024).

  • Tinker, J. L. A self-calibrating halo-based group finder: application to SDSS. Astrophys. J. 923, 154 (2021).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wake, D. A. et al. The SDSS-IV MaNGA sample: design, optimization, and usage considerations. Astron. J. 154, 86 (2017).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rodriguez-Gomez, V. et al. The stellar mass assembly of galaxies in the Illustris simulation: growth by mergers and the spatial distribution of accreted stars. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 458, 2371–2390 (2016).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Huško, F., Lacey, C. G. & Baugh, C. M. The buildup of galaxies and their spheroids: the contributions of mergers, disc instabilities, and star formation. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 518, 5323–5339 (2023).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Bell, E. F. et al. The accretion origin of the Milky Way’s stellar halo. Astrophys. J. 680, 295–311 (2008).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Helmi, A. Streams, substructures, and the early history of the Milky Way. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 58, 205–256 (2020).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • McConnachie, A. W. The observed properties of dwarf galaxies in and around the Local Group. Astron. J. 144, 4 (2012).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kruijssen, J. M. D., Pfeffer, J. L., Reina-Campos, M., Crain, R. A. & Bastian, N. The formation and assembly history of the Milky Way revealed by its globular cluster population. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 486, 3180–3202 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Conselice, C. J., Mundy, C. J., Ferreira, L. & Duncan, K. A direct measurement of galaxy major and minor merger rates and stellar mass accretion histories at z < 3 using galaxy pairs in the REFINE survey. Astrophys. J. 940, 168 (2022).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Mundy, C. J. et al. A consistent measure of the merger histories of massive galaxies using close-pair statistics. I. Major mergers at z < 3.5. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 470, 3507–3531 (2017).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Zhu, L. et al. The Fornax3D project: discovery of ancient massive merger events in the Fornax cluster galaxies NGC 1380 and NGC 1427. Astron. Astrophys. 664, A115 (2022).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lackner, C. N., Cen, R., Ostriker, J. P. & Joung, M. R. Building galaxies by accretion and in situ star formation. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 425, 641–656 (2012).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Davison, T. A., Norris, M. A., Pfeffer, J. L., Davies, J. J. & Crain, R. A. An EAGLE’s view of ex situ galaxy growth. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 497, 81–93 (2020).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Tacchella, S. et al. Morphology and star formation in IllustrisTNG: the build-up of spheroids and discs. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 487, 5416–5440 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lee, J. & Yi, S. K. On the assembly history of stellar components in massive galaxies. Astrophys. J. 766, 38 (2013).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • De Lucia, G., Springel, V., White, S. D. M., Croton, D. & Kauffmann, G. The formation history of elliptical galaxies. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 366, 499–509 (2006).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rodriguez-Gomez, V. et al. The role of mergers and halo spin in shaping galaxy morphology. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 467, 3083–3098 (2017).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rowlands, K. et al. Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA): the mechanisms for quiescent galaxy formation at z < 1. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 473, 1168–1185 (2018).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Belli, S., Newman, A. B. & Ellis, R. S. MOSFIRE spectroscopy of quiescent galaxies at 1.5 < z < 2.5. II. Star formation histories and galaxy quenching. Astrophys. J. 874, 17 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Naab, T. et al. The ATLAS3D project. XXV. Two-dimensional kinematic analysis of simulated galaxies and the cosmological origin of fast and slow rotators. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 444, 3357–3387 (2014).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Yoon, Y., Park, C., Chung, H. & Lane, R. R. Evidence for impact of galaxy mergers on stellar kinematics of early-type galaxies. Astrophys. J. 925, 168 (2022).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lin, L. et al. Where do wet, dry, and mixed galaxy mergers occur? A study of the environments of close galaxy pairs in the DEEP2 galaxy redshift survey. Astrophys. J. 718, 1158–1170 (2010).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Jian, H.-Y., Lin, L. & Chiueh, T. Environmental dependence of the galaxy merger rate in a ΛCDM universe. Astrophys. J. 754, 26 (2012).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Planck Collaboration. Planck 2015 results. XIII. Cosmological parameters. Astron. Astrophys. 594, A13 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pillepich, A. et al. First results from the TNG50 simulation: the evolution of stellar and gaseous discs across cosmic time. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 490, 3196–3233 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Nelson, D. et al. First results from the TNG50 simulation: galactic outflows driven by supernovae and black hole feedback. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 490, 3234–3261 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sánchez, S. F. et al. SDSS-IV MaNGA: pyPipe3D analysis release for 10,000 galaxies. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 262, 36 (2022).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lacerda, E. A. D. et al. pyFIT3D and pyPipe3D – the new version of the integral field spectroscopy data analysis pipeline. New Astron. 97, 101895 (2022).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Liu, H., HaoChen, J. Z., Gaidon, A. & Ma, T. Self-supervised learning is more robust to dataset imbalance. Preprint at arxiv.org/Uabs/2110.05025 (2021).

  • Grill, J.-B. et al. Bootstrap your own latent: a new approach to self-supervised learning. In Proc. 34th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (eds Larochelle, H. et al.) 21271–21284 (Curran Associates, 2020).

  • Daddi, E. et al. Passively evolving early-type galaxies at 1.4 z 2.5 in the Hubble ultra deep field. Astrophys. J. 626, 680–697 (2005).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • van Dokkum, P. G. et al. Confirmation of the remarkable compactness of massive quiescent galaxies at z ~ 2.3: early-type galaxies did not form in a simple monolithic collapse. Astrophys. J. Lett. 677, L5 (2008).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • van der Wel, A. et al. 3D-HST+CANDELS: the evolution of the galaxy size–mass distribution since z = 3. Astrophys. J. 788, 28 (2014).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rodriguez-Gomez, V. et al. The optical morphologies of galaxies in the IllustrisTNG simulation: a comparison to Pan-STARRS observations. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 483, 4140–4159 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wilkinson, D. M., Maraston, C., Goddard, D., Thomas, D. & Parikh, T. FIREFLY (Fitting Iteratively for Likelihood Analysis): a full spectral fitting code. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 472, 4297–4326 (2017).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Westfall, K. B. et al. The data analysis pipeline for the SDSS-IV MaNGA IFU galaxy survey: overview. Astron. J. 158, 231 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Nanni, L. et al. iMaNGA: mock MaNGA galaxies based on IllustrisTNG and MaStar SSPs. II. The catalogue. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 522, 5479–5499 (2023).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Domínguez Sánchez, H., Margalef, B., Bernardi, M. & Huertas-Company, M. SDSS-IV DR17: final release of MaNGA PyMorph photometric and deep-learning morphological catalogues. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 509, 4024–4036 (2022).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sánchez, S. F. et al. Pipe3D, a pipeline to analyze integral field spectroscopy data. II. Analysis sequence and CALIFA dataproducts. Rev. Mexicana Astron. Astrofis. 52, 171–220 (2016).

    ADS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Graham, M. T. et al. SDSS-IV MaNGA: stellar angular momentum of about 2300 galaxies: unveiling the bimodality of massive galaxy properties. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 477, 4711–4737 (2018).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar